Chapter 7: Women, Caste and Reform
Working Towards Change
From the early nineteenth century, debates and discussions about social customs and practices took on a new character, thanks to the development of new forms of communication like books, newspapers, and magazines. Social reformers used these to spread their ideas.
Abolishing Sati
Raja Rammohun Roy (1772-1833) was a key reformer. He founded a reform association known as the Brahmo Sabha (later Brahmo Samaj) in Calcutta. He began a campaign against the practice of sati (the immolation of widows on their husband's funeral pyre). Through his writings, he showed that the practice had no sanction in ancient texts. In 1829, due to his efforts, the British administration banned sati.
Widow Remarriage
Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, another great reformer, used the ancient texts to suggest that widows could remarry. His suggestion was adopted by British officials, and a law was passed in 1856 permitting widow remarriage. In the Telugu-speaking areas of the Madras Presidency, Veerasalingam Pantulu formed an association for widow remarriage.
Girls Begin Going to School
Many reformers felt that education for girls was necessary in order to improve the condition of women. Vidyasagar in Calcutta and many other reformers in Bombay set up schools for girls. In aristocratic Muslim households in North India, women like Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain started schools for Muslim girls in Patna and Calcutta. From the 1880s, Indian women began to enter universities.
Caste and Social Reform
The Brahmo Samaj, the Prarthana Samaj, and the Arya Samaj were some of the reform associations that worked to challenge the caste system. In Bombay, the Paramhans Mandali was founded in 1840 to work for the abolition of caste.
Jyotirao Phule
Jyotirao Phule (1827-1890) was one of the most vocal amongst the “low-caste” leaders. He attacked the Brahmans’ claim that they were superior to others since they were Aryans. Phule argued that the Aryans were foreigners. He founded an association called Satyashodhak Samaj to propagate caste equality. In 1873, Phule wrote a book named Gulamgiri (Slavery), linking the injustices of the caste system to the slavery of Black people in America.
The Movement for Temple Entry
B.R. Ambedkar, who came from a Mahar family, experienced caste prejudice firsthand. In 1927, Ambedkar started a temple entry movement, in which his Mahar caste followers participated. The aim was to make everyone see the power of caste prejudices within society. He led three such movements for temple entry between 1927 and 1935.
Other important reformers included E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, or Periyar, who founded the Self Respect Movement.
Exercise Questions and Answers
1. What social ideas did the following people support.
Rammohun Roy
Dayanand Saraswati
Veerasalingam Pantulu
Jyotirao Phule
Pandita Ramabai
Periyar
Mumtaz Ali
Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar
Rammohun Roy: Fought against the practice of Sati and supported the spread of Western education.
Dayanand Saraswati: Supported widow remarriage and founded the Arya Samaj, which challenged caste inequalities.
Veerasalingam Pantulu: Advocated for widow remarriage in the Madras Presidency.
Jyotirao Phule: Fought for caste equality, opposed the dominance of Brahmans, and promoted education for "low-caste" girls.
Pandita Ramabai: Championed the cause of women's education and founded a widow's home at Poona to shelter widows who had been treated badly.
Periyar: Argued against the caste system and founded the Self Respect Movement.
Mumtaz Ali: Reinterpreted verses from the Koran to argue for women's education.
Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar: Strongly supported widow remarriage and education for girls.
2. State whether true or false:
(a) When the British captured Bengal they framed many new laws to regulate the rules regarding marriage, adoption, inheritance of property, etc.
(b) Social reformers had to discard the ancient texts in order to argue for reform in social practices.
(c) Reformers got full support from all sections of the people of the country.
(d) The Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed in 1829.
(a) False. The British were initially reluctant to interfere with local customs and framed such laws much later, often after pressure from reformers.
(b) False. Many social reformers used ancient texts, reinterpreting them to show that harmful social practices had no religious sanction.
(c) False. Reformers often faced stiff opposition from orthodox groups who believed they were attacking their culture and traditions.
(d) False. The Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed in 1929.
3. How did the knowledge of ancient texts help the reformers promote new laws?
The knowledge of ancient texts was a powerful tool for reformers. Whenever they wished to challenge a harmful social practice like sati or the ban on widow remarriage, they would find verses or passages in ancient sacred texts that supported their point of view. They could then argue that the current practice was a corruption and not sanctioned by true religion. This strategy gave their arguments legitimacy and made it harder for orthodox groups to oppose them on religious grounds. It showed that reform was not an attack on tradition, but a return to a purer form of it.
4. What were the different reasons people had for not sending girls to school?
People had several reasons for not sending girls to school in the nineteenth century:
1. Many feared that schooling would prevent girls from doing their domestic duties.
2. There was a concern that travel to school would have a corrupting influence on them and take them away from the protected domestic environment.
3. Many believed that girls should be kept away from public spaces.
4. In conservative households, there was a belief that educating girls would lead to them being widowed.
5. Why were Christian missionaries attacked by many people in the country? Would some people have supported them too? If so, for what reasons?
Christian missionaries were attacked by many people because they were seen as a threat to Indian religions and culture. They actively criticised local customs and religions and tried to convert people to Christianity, which was seen as an act of cultural aggression. The setting up of schools by missionaries was also viewed with suspicion. However, some people would have supported them. People from tribal communities and "lower" castes, who were often oppressed within the Hindu social structure, were sometimes attracted to the missionaries' message of equality. For them, converting to Christianity or attending missionary schools could offer a way to escape the harsh realities of the caste system and gain access to education and new opportunities.
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